CSA Defense Review

[Borys]

Congressional Defence Select Commission
Report on 1898 Defence Review

1. Abstract
2. Identification of Roles
3. Manufacturing Potential
4. Army Requirements
5. Navy Requirements
6. Infrastructure Requirements
7. Further Recommendations
8. Future Developments
9. Conclusion

1. Abstract

For many years, the Confederate States' Army and Navy have been allowed to grow in a haphazard fashion, often irrespective of the threats posed to the Confederacy. This lack of policy has left the nation lacking in security against outside foes, whilst it is divided internally. Thirty years of poor decisions have left the Army weak, and the Navy oversized.

The Congressional Defence Select Commission, composed of elected officials and staff officers of both services, was instigated to review the state of the Confederate Armed Forces and propose a revitalisation program for the military. This report summarizes the findings of the Commission over the period of its activity.

2. Identification of Roles

There are few states with which the Confederacy holds quarrel. Of these, however, the Anahuac Empire reigns foremost. The lengthy common border would make such a conflict predominantly land based, although the navies of each party can be expected to clash. A potential enemy of great power and fanaticism, it is imperative that the Confederate States be able to defeat the Anahuac Empire on land. In addition, the United Kingdom of America, a long-standing rival of the Confederacy, must be guarded against. It is felt, though, that any force capable of resisting the Anahuac Empire must also be capable of routing the UKA.

Amongst the naval powers, there are particularly few enemies. It is believed that the Navy must be able to prevent any potential attack on the coastline of the Confederacy, whilst also providing seaward cover for the Army. The need to deploy from one coastline to the other requires that the Navy construct ships of great range; this feature is also desirable as it enables disruption of supply lines for those powers obliged to fight at a distance from their industry. Protection of Confederate trade from similar offensives by foreign powers, most notably New Switzerland, with which there has been some tension in recent times, is of equal importance.

The main roles of the Confederate Armed Forces, then, are:
• Offensive operations against the Anahuac Empire
• Defence of the Confederate coastline
• Guerre de course
• Trade protection

3. Manufacturing Potential

The effective forces of the modern armed forces are effectively controlled by the industrial capacity of their parent nation. Within the Confederacy, there exists considerable industry, consisting of nine heavy factories, each capable of producing one thousand tons of warship material or two arbitrary units of medium industry; eight medium factories, each capable of producing one hundred and twenty-five tons of warship material, one unit of medium industry or four units of light industry; and four light factories, each capable of producing half a unit of medium industry, one unit of medium industry if used for Army construction or one unit of light industry.

4. Army Requirements

It is imperative that the army – much neglected over the last decades – be modernised. Although a large force could certainly be constructed, possibly consisting of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers, such a force would be far weaker than apparent, and also unsustainable in wartime. Sustainability is viewed as critical in a modern armed force, as much so as raw combat power. Studies (see Appendix A) have revealed that the maximum force that can be supported in wartime consists of 276 arbitrary units of medium industry's worth of cavalry and infantry.

The consequent force must be able to carry out heavy offensive operations against the enemy, either Anahuac or Royalist, but also be able to hold ground against their own counter-attacks. Traditionally, both roles have been fulfilled by cavalry; in the environment of modern warfare, the horseman is no longer able to fight against the most modern infantry tactics. Therefore, the much-neglected infantry must be brought to a modern state of readiness.

Cavalry, though, retains the traditional ability to create breaches in enemy lines, carry out flanking manoeuvres and to carry out long-range patrols in either enemy or friendly territory. This latter ability has proved its worth during the campaign against believed Anahuac smugglers in the southern states.

The Commission believes that the optimum mixture of infantry to cavalry units can be achieved through the possession of one cavalry division for three of infantry. All of these units should be equipped in the most modern manner possible, regardless of the apparent savings that may be made by purchasing poorer-quality equipment.

Use of differing ammunition and weapons for the infantry and cavalry must be discontinued, both being equipped instead with the Enfield mechanism and ammunition. The infantry shall use a long, 36" barrelled weapon, whilst the cavalry will operate with the shorter 30" barrel. Both weapons, the carbine and the rifle, hold up to twelve quarter-inch bullets in a magazine, the chamber being reloaded by the action of a bolt. Use of this same ammunition will be encouraged in new machine guns for the Army, which will further ease logistical supply. Both infantry and cavalry enlisted men shall be supplied with the three-eighths inch revolver, whilst the officer corps will be equipped instead with the half-inch revolver presently under development. Use of the sabre by cavalry formations will be continued, whilst all fighting men are to be issued with an eight-inch dagger and fittings for its use as a bayonet.

Cavalry formations must retain their mobility throughout this process. Although currently amongst the world's most advanced, there is still a lack of heavy firepower in the cavalry. In order to rectify this situation, it is proposed that the divisional allocation of artillery be expanded to include one regiment of 3" horse artillery, consisting of 18 guns, and that each squadron receive two 1" machine guns, mounted on the same chassis as the 3" artillery piece. Although the 1" machine gun is not presently in service with the Army, the Navy possesses an excellent weapon in this calibre that could be easily adapted to land use.

The artillery arm of the Army must also be strengthened. Within each corps of infantry, in addition to the two divisions of fighting men, an embedded brigade of artillery must also be included. This shall consist of, where possible:
• 9 batteries of 6 9.2" howitzers;
• 9 batteries of 6 6" guns;
• 18 batteries of 6 3" guns, to be replaced as soon as possible with 4" guns;
These batteries of artillery are to be divided into two regiments, one containing the 3" guns and the other with the heavier weapons. The artillery brigade shall also be equipped with bridging pontoons appropriate to the crossing of up to 100 feet of water.

No fewer than fifty-two corps – that is to say, one hundred and four divisions – can be supported out of the 276 units of industry available. This should comprise the following:
• 31 advanced infantry corps with training and equipment suited to all terrains;
• 4 advanced infantry corps with additional training and equipment specialised for mountain terrain, including the elite corps of Rangers;
• 4 advanced infantry corps with additional training and equipment specialised for desert terrain;
• 8 advanced cavalry corps with training and equipment suited to all terrains;
• 5 advanced cavalry corps with additional training and equipment specialised for desert terrain, including two elite corps.

Of these corps, the following are to be reserve formations:
• 22 advanced infantry corps with training and equipment suited to all terrains;
• 1 advanced infantry corps with additional training and equipment specialised for mountain terrain;
• 3 advanced infantry corps with additional training and equipment specialised for desert terrain.

[Borys]

5. Navy Requirements

The neglect of the Army mentioned above has occurred due to an over-emphasis on the maintenance of the Navy. This has resulted in the acquisition of over four thousand tons of ships, numbering over two hundred. Whilst apparently formidable, the fact remains that many of these ships are outdated, with inadequate armament to counter the latest battleships, lacking in protection and too slow to maintain a single speed as a formation with similar ships. Further, as with the Army, it is of great importance that the force structure be sustainable; in this case, a reduction in force to 360,000 tons of shipping is required.

A new fleet must effectively be constructed; there are very few modern ships in the Navy, almost all of which are obsolescent. As the world's navies continue their emphasis on battleship fleets, the CS Navy cannot afford to relinquish its strength in this field. Given the latest developments in North America and abroad, the minimum acceptable battleship to counter potential enemy ships must carry either six of a new-model 12" gun or four of a 13.5" gun. In order to obtain a balanced ship with this armament, it is necessary that a displacement of 16,000 tons be allocated for each battleship.

The newest cruisers of the world's navies mount great numbers of guns in the range of the CS Navy's 9.2" gun. Although the Rohirrim has obtained a fearsome armament of twelve such guns on their latest cruisers, this has been achieved only at the expense of very low speed. In the cruiser role, it is imperative that the ships be able to carry out extended cruises in either ocean, or possibly transit from one ocean to the other. In wartime, the availability of the Union del Sur America's ports cannot be assured, as it has historically been, and so it is vital that the Navy's first-class cruisers be able to carry out lengthy transit cruises. Sketch designs, prepared by the Admiralty, have shown that a broadside of six 9.2" guns can be achieved, with a heavy secondary battery, on twelve thousand tons; this is superior to the latest ships of any other navy, save the New Swiss 'super cruisers'. Although this category of ship – perhaps better described as a 'frigate' – is not perceived as having a role in the CS Navy, it is believed that this type should be further investigated.

In order to carry out the mission of closing enemy sea lanes, the first class cruiser is oversized. Although carrying extensive firepower, the ships are too large for construction in great numbers, and also consume more fuel than can be supplied by prize vessels. A smaller vessel, in the size range of the Rohirrim's 'Orodruin', could be constructed with sufficient speed and armament to overcome most cruisers, whilst also being able to carry out lengthy operations and be produced in moderately large numbers.

Smaller cruisers are also necessary, both for the sea denial role described above and as support for the battlefleet. To date, this role has been fulfilled by cruisers with a mixed battery of 6" and 4" guns; the former is felt to be too slow-firing to affect lighter vessels, whilst the 4" guns are too light to inflict damage on any ship of size. Recently, a new gun of 4.85" calibre has been developed; this gun could be fitted to a new class of cruiser and provide far greater firepower against all targets. A ship of 2,500 tons displacement should prove possible carrying these guns, with sufficient speed and range for widespread deployment.

The Navy's emphasis on coastal defence should be continued by the production of further modern torpedo rams. Present ships, displacing 550 tons, are amongst the best in the world, with an excellent 19.5" torpedo. This lineage should be continued, maintaining a force of world-class torpedo craft. The development of this line is currently projected as a ship of 750 tons, carrying six torpedo tubes and capable of 30 knots. Such a ship must be able not only to secure the coastline, but also to operate with the battlefleet.

Additional ships of mixed types should also enter the Navy's use:
• Tenders are needed to support the current fleet of torpedo rams in longer-range operations. These will displace around 2,500 tons and be able to replenish twelve to sixteen light craft.
• Small patrol craft, or sloops, should be constructed to allow security operations along the coastline, freeing up first-rate warships for regular operations. A ship of around 500 tons is expected to prove adequate in this role for many years.
• The newly-developed submersibles should be constructed by the Navy as potential successors to the torpedo ram in defending harbours and similar areas.
• A small number of light ships with a heavy armament and shallow draught are needed for operations in support of the Army, both along the coastline and along the Mississippi river system.

The optimum fleet for the Confederate States' Navy in the present environment should consist of the following:
• Two squadrons of four 16,000 ton battleships;
• Two squadrons of two 12,000 ton cruisers;
• Eight 7,500 ton cruisers;
• Twenty-four 2,500 ton cruisers;
• Sixteen squadrons of four 750 ton torpedo rams;
• Four 2,500 ton tenders;
• Eight 500 ton sloops
• Four 500 ton river monitors
Of these, the following should be held in reserve: one squadron of battleships, one of first class cruisers, four second class cruisers, twelve third class cruisers and ten squadrons of torpedo rams.

Given the number of ships expected to be in service, there is a need for some means of registering the various ships in service. A numerical basis for this is desirable, whereby each ship may be assigned a type letter or letters, followed by a numeral representing the number of the ship.

6. Infrastructure Requirements

The projected force sizes given above are calculated to be sustainable during wartime by present industry. However, there is no allowance for construction of additional forces when fully mobilised; the doctrine of a rapid victory must therefore remain critical as there will be no opportunity to replace lost forces.

This state of affairs can be seen to be unacceptable in a lengthy conflict. It is desirable that the present production excess – five units of medium industry – be doubled to ten, and that a commensurate increase in heavy industry is also financed. This latter is proposed to total some five thousand extra tons of warship materials, bringing the combined industry of the Confederacy to fourteen heavy factories and eight medium factories in addition to light industry.

The transportation of industrial goods must also be taken into consideration. In terms of cost per ton-mile, the cheapest means of communication is that of railways. The present network, although relatively extensive, has little capacity west of the Mississippi and is becoming saturated by the levels of traffic already in the system. In order to rectify this, a new, Federal rail network must be constructed. Compatibility should be retained with the existing network through use of a common gauge, but the Federal network must be kept exclusively for military traffic, freight from Federal factories, freight delivered to Federal property and special trains for dignitaries.

7. Further Recommendations

There are a number of other areas in which there is potential for improvement. These include:
• Officer training
• Intelligence provision
• Heavy artillery organisation

The current system of officer training relies on promotion of non-commissioned men in both services. This system produces excellent officers, but their numbers are far fewer than are needed. In order to boost the numbers of officers available, the direct entry of cadets to the officer training programs for both services must be made available to those candidates possessing a certain minimum standard of education; this is proposed as a Bachelor's degree.

Foreign diplomatic intelligence and military intelligence are both admirably funded, but inefficiency in the organisations – disparate as they are – causes duplication of effort and thus wastage of effort. This was taken to its' extreme in the WDU affair of 1896, in which the entire inner circle of the organisation proved to be agents of various Federal agencies.

In order to counter the problems caused by this multiplicity of organisations, a single intelligence organ must be formed. This Intelligence Board should consist of three major branches:
• Diplomatic intelligence, concerned with the operations of foreign states;
• Military intelligence, concerned with the operations of foreign armed forces;
• Counter-intelligence, concerned with the prevention of foreign espionage within the borders of the Confederacy.

There is also a need for internal security forces, to infiltrate subversive organisations within the States. This need could likely be fulfilled by operatives of the counter-intelligence branch of the Intelligence Board.

Heavy artillery has historically been a preserve of the Army, but is now being recognised as valuable in coastal defence. As the Navy is unwilling to hand over control of seaward defence to the Army, which in turn wishes to retain its heavy siege guns, the reallocation of heavy railway guns must be considered.

A Central Artillery Board should be formed to take control over all heavy artillery within the Confederacy, drawing its manpower from both the Army and Navy. All large guns – 9.2" and larger – are obliged to use rail transportation due to their size; the new Federal Rail Network could, however, be designed for the easy operation of these heavy guns.

Already, 9.2" and 12" artillery has been procured by the Army for rail operation; a dozen 9.2" naval rifles and four 12" howitzers are currently held in storage by the Army pending the availability of mountings. These weapons should be placed on rail cars with the greatest possible haste, whilst the possibility of larger guns and howitzers is investigated.

8. Future Developments

The face of warfare cannot be expected to remain static. Already this century, cavalry has been shown weaker than was previously believed and the sailing frigate has been eclipsed by steam power. Further developments must be expected. The shape of these cannot be foreseen, just as Nelson could not have foreseen the development of the ironclad, but any development that offers benefits for the security of the Confederate States must be accepted. There are, however, three technologies currently in existence that are being under-exploited by our armed forces: those of ballooning, submersibles and the radio-telegraph. These will be examined in turn.

Ballooning, or more generally aviation, has long been a goal of the military commander. With the recent development of balloons of varying sizes and types, he has gained the possibility of seeing 'the other side of the hill', and thereby gains foreknowledge of enemy formations and manoeuvres. The current technology – based, as noted, on unpowered balloons – allows only a limited area to be surveyed, whilst a commander may have need for in-depth reconnaissance. To this end, it is vital that balloons be further developed, being supplied first with some form of motor, and then with a means of directional control.

Inspiration for the latter can be drawn from the rudders of ships, whose action against the water enables the helm to steer the vessel; in combination with a lightweight petroleum or steam motor, this would enable the development of an 'air ship' with good range and, potentially, load-carrying ability. Such a dirigible balloon might, beyond reconnaissance for the Army, also be operated by the Navy for patrols, whilst being capable of dropping exploding bombs on enemy formations. Development of a class of air ships should therefore be treated as a matter of highest priority. Potential enemies can also be expected to develop similar craft; some means of artillery should thus be contrived such that, by firing at a high elevation, balloons can be shot out of the air.

The submersible may also offer new opportunities to the Navy. As a coastal defence vessel, it offers the unique ability to operate whilst below the surface of the water; it can thus prove undetectable by an enemy until it either surfaces or fires a weapon. However, there are certain significant challenges posed: the availability of a power source capable of performing whilst under water; the feasibility of underwater navigation and the development of a means of supporting the crew whilst under water.

The first of these challenges may prove to be easily met by the use of a compressed air source for a conventional power plant, or through electric motors driven by lead-acid cells. Underwater navigation is complicated by the opacity of water under most conditions; it may prove that some means of dead reckoning is the only effective means of determining position whilst submerged. Equally, a small tube may be fitted to allow the helmsman to observe the surface environment. Finally, the issue of oxygen removal must be overcome. An interim solution may be to carry bottles of compressed air that can be released as the existing air becomes toxic; other options should also be considered.

Communication between widely-separated ships and, to a lesser extent, separated Army units, poses difficulties in coordination for operational purposes. Although the existing means of signal flags suffice for many missions, there is a great need for a reliable means by which messages can be exchanged over ranges greater than those at which flags can be read. The radio telegraph, pioneered by Professor Popov in Russia, offers a potential solution to this problem.

Apparently invulnerable to interception, the radio telegraph is able to convey messages over hundreds of miles without significant loss of content, and does so effectively instantaneously. For this reason, the telegraph should be issued to the headquarters of every Army division, and also fitted to all ships of the Navy. This means of communication has already entered service with the Russian navy; it is a matter of time before those of our enemies receive this means of communication. Although means of interception are at present unclear, the development of countermeasures to the radio telegraph should also be studied in depth.

9. Conclusion

The Confederate States of America is currently the most powerful state in North America, and one of the most powerful in the world. However, short-sightedness has lead to its' military might being frittered away, constructing an overlarge, unbalanced Navy and a stunted Army. Both of these shortcomings must be corrected as soon as possible, else the Confederacy will remain vulnerable to its' enemies.

The program of improvements detailed in this report, it is hoped, can be completed in under twenty years; during these years, the Army and Navy can be built up to strength in only twelve at the worst.

Appendix A. Maximum Sustainable Size of the Army and Navy

The Army and Navy estimates discussed above are based upon the maximum force sustainable during wartime. Given that, one-fortieth of the Navy's tonnage will require replacement during any three-month period of wartime, the maximum sustainable Navy force will consist of forty times the quarterly production of materials of nine thousand tons; that is, 360,000 tons of shipping.

Each hundred thousand tons will require one arbitrary unit of manpower for its' crewing; at a replacement rate equivalent to that of the ship's tonnage, namely one-fortieth, the Navy will require a quarterly supply of nine percent of an arbitrary unit. As the population of the Confederacy is currently estimated as being able to provide seven such units, a total of 6.91 arbitrary units of manpower will be available to support the Army.

Using the same basic assumptions as for the Navy – that a unit will require one-fortieth of its' manpower for upkeep – this permits an Army totalling 276 units of manpower of servicemen. Each of these units of manpower is estimated as requiring one unit of medium industry for its' production, leading to the figures shown in sections 4 and 5.